Dalrymple (1737-1808) was a Scottish explorer, geographer and administrator with a long Indian association. He came to India as a writer in the British East India Company in 1753, at the age of 16. He undertook several expeditions into the East Indies in search of new places and routes to further the trade of the Company. He was appointed Hydrographer to the East India Company in 1779 and, while remaining in that position, appointed the first Hydrographer of the Admiralty in 1795. He was also made a member of the Madras Council in 1775.
During the time of Dalrymple, the British had just begun to expand beyond their base in Fort St. George. In 1763, they obtained about 2,000 localities in the region of Chengalpattu, lying in and around Chennai, as Jaghire from the Nawab of Arcot. After the battle of Buxar, in 1765, Robert Clive forced Shah Alam II to ratify the grant of the Chengalpattu Jaghire. In the same Darbar, Shah Alam II, signed Fermans granting the British the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odissa and the Enam of Northern Circars. This marked the beginning of British rule in India.
Before establishing their direct governance in Chengalpattu around 1791, the British managed the Jaghire through a renter, who until 1783 was a subordinate of the Nawab of Arcot. In this period, they also carried out an intensive topographic and socio-economic survey of all of the localities of the Jaghire. The Survey was carried out by Colonel Thomas Barnard, who spent 7 years from 1767 to 1773 in this exercise. The Survey gave a detailed picture of the affluence and fertility of the lands and of the effective, just and equitable governance carried out autonomously by the inhabitants of the localities. The British found this polity so dazzling, so different from what they were used to in their own country and so threatening to what they proposed to do here that they never undertook a similar survey in any other part of India.
Dalrymple was intimately familiar with the accounts of the Barnard Survey. He had prepared the first official map of the Jaghire based on that Survey which was published in London in 1778. In the Legend of the Map, he gives a summary of the extent of the land, assessed produce (revenue) of the land and other taxes, and the number of people in each of the 16 Maganams (districts) of the Jaghire. In 1785, Edmond Burke, renowned Anglo-Irish philosopher and statesman, displayed Darlymple’s Map of the Jaghire in the House of Lords, referring to it as “a noble map, and of noble things”.
“A Short Account of the Gentoo Mode of Collecting the Revenues on the Coast of Choromandel”, which Dalrymple drew up in 1783 and reproduced below, is based largely on the Barnard Survey and his own observations in the field as a member of the Madras Council.
At that early phase of the conquest of India, the British had not yet acquired the disdain a conqueror has for the people he subjugates. In his account, Dalrymple offers glowing praises for the Gentoo mode of Government. “Gentoo” is the term the British used in general for “Hindu” and specifically for the inhabitants of Telugu areas. It is greatly instructive to read Dalrymple’s entire account. It would disabuse the reader of all ideas of the widespread poverty and the so-called oriental despotism that the Indians were supposedly mired in for centuries before the coming of the British, according to their later reconstruction of India and her history.
However, let us give a few quotes to interest the reader in what follows. In the preface itself, Dalrymple mentions the Indian system of policing, where the Polygar, Palayakkarar in proper Tamil, who is the equivalent of a police chief of the locality or the region, was held answerable for everything that was lost in the area under his protection. In this context, Dalrymple says:
“…perhaps it requires Indian-Honesty to make such an Institution efficacious; for in this Country [England], Claims would probably be made on the Officer, for pretended losses, to an extent which the wealth of Croesus could not satisfy; or the Law teach him to evade payment of actual losses till the day of Judgement….”
At another place, Dalrymple says:
“The Gentoo Government was, unquestionably, the best that ever existed, and the Remains of this Government still subsist on the Coromandel Coast, but with a number of Foreign Incumbrances… every Village is a Small Community within itself, living under the protection of The State, but governed by Its own Inhabitants. …”
He is indeed surprised that:
“There is (except Houses and Gardens) no Individual Property of Land: The Cultivation of Lands, belonging to each Village, being carried on, by the Community of the Village, and the Produce partitioned in certain proportions. …”
In conclusion he says,
“…these General Outlines, of The Gentoo Constitution, will be sufficient to explain the nature of that Government, which was founded on principles of the strictest justice; and the leading Principle of their Religion is Charity and Benevolence…”
This Government by the community, began to come under pressure within a few years of the coming of the British. The system of governance as well as the affluence and fertility of land were already collapsing by 1783 when Dalrymple wrote his note. In the latter part of the essay, he recounts the reasons for the collapse. The most important of which was the breakdown of the extensive system of irrigation that the Hindu mode of governance had sustained since times unknown. The second was the paucity of bullocks, which the British had commandeered in large numbers both for the transport of the armies and for the food of their troops. The third was the disappearance of sheep (and goats) that grazed the lands and enriched the soils with their droppings, but were taken away to be served in the British messes. On top of all this was the system of collecting revenue through renters, who had no interest in the welfare of the land or the people. This deprived the community of funds for the maintenance of essential infrastructure and services. In the earlier system, the community had provided for these through an elaborate system of assigning specific shares in the produce for various institutions and functions, which Dalrymple describes in some detail.
In his account, Dalrymple also suggests certain measures to improve the situation. Some of these remain relevant even today. Especially, his suggestion of expanding the numbers in the armies and deploying the soldiers in peace time for the restoration of irrigation and other infrastructure is worthy of consideration even today.
We, in the Centre for Policy Studies, have spent several decades copying, compiling and analysing the records of the Barnard Survey in both English and Tamil. Dalrymple’s account convinces us that what we have understood of the Chengalpattu polity from those records conforms with the interpretation of the early British administrators. We have published monographs describing the working of the polity in detail in two of the localities of Chengalpattu, Kundratthur and Ullavur. We have also given an overview of our understanding of the Chengalpattu polity based on these two localities in two of our earlier blogs in English and Hindi.
Dalrymple wrote his account in the English of his time. We have retained the archaic spellings and phrases of his time. The rules of capitalising were also very different. We have retained the capitals as in the original. Some of the letters of the alphabet also were written and printed differently. Especially, “s” in certain positions was written and printed to look like f. Despite the oddities, the original has been painstakingly and carefully typed by Anjaneya Bajaj.
--------------------------------------------
Image courtesy Wikipedia: Drawing by John Brown, engraving By T. Blood: State Library of New South Wales, DL Pd 729, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=152898570
---------------------------------
PREFACE
The Subject of the following Pages is in itself equally curious and important; I am sorry I cannot treat it, with all the precision it deserves, but I am flattered with the Aprobation of some of my India-Friends, who have perused it; and I hope it will be the means of obtaining, from some other Person hereafter, a more copious Account: a Friend doubts how far it can be said “there is no Individual Property of Land” as “the Head-Men buy and sell their Lands and Manors.” I am not competent to say, whether the Sale of Lands was originally vested in the Village, or whether this Alienation is a modern corruption; I suspect the last: however, this Alienation does not prove any property, in the single Individual: what I meant to convey was, that the Lands are the Property of the Community, however few persons that Community may contain.
Whether the Cultivation is solely carried on by Villains or Slaves, or whether there are only assistants, I am also incompetent to say, having, by the Court of Directors, been appointed One of the Committee of Circuit. I took less pains to investigate the detail of this Matter at Madrass, as I thought it would be done better on the Circuit, where it was essentially necessary to go into all the varieties, which Time or Accident had established in the different districts; so that these Pages are chiefly taken from a letter, which I had written to a Friend in England from Madrass, soon after my arrival, and from casual Memorandums in Publick Affairs; unfortunately many of my Papers were lost in the Swallow.
The Friend, beforementioned, reminded me of one very important part of the Gentoo Establishment; the Watch; “the Polygar has a Custom or Duty on everything, and he is answerable for everything that is lost in the District.” No Mode can more effectually prevent Theft and Robbery than obliging the Officer to make good the loss: Even in my memory, this Regulation subsisted at Madrass; and I think in Governor Saunder’s Administration, Complaint was made to the President and Council, by a European living in the Black-Town, that the Pettanaigue refused to make good what had been stolen: The Pettanaigue or Pollygar replied, that this Person, being an European, did not pay the duty to him, and consequently was not entitled to any indemnification:—perhaps it requires Indian-Honesty to make such an Institution efficacious; for in this Country, Claims would probably be made on the Officer, for pretended losses, to an extent which the wealth of Croesus could not satisfy; or the Law teach him to evade payment of actual losses till the day of Judgement.
4th December 1783.
-------------------------
July, 1783.
The Gentoo Government was, unquestionably, the best that ever existed, and the Remains of this Government still subsist on the Coromandel Coast, but with a number of Foreign Incumbrances: The Excellency of the Gentoo Government cannot be more clearly demonstrated, than by observing that the Revenues to the Government are certain fixed proportions, of the Produce of the Land, paid in kind; and that every Village is a Small Community within itself, living under the protection of The State, but governed by Its own Inhabitants.
2. Each Village has many Publick Officers, such as the Headman to execute Justice, the Conicopoly to keep the Accounts of the Village, the Corn-meter, the Smith, the Barber &c. more considerable Villages have their Doctor, Astrologer &c. and all the Public Officers have Shares of the General Produce.
3. There is (except Houses and Gardens) no Individual Property of Land: The Cultivation of Lands, belonging to each Village, being carried on, by the Community of the Village, and the Produce partitioned in certain proportions.
4. Although there is no Individual property of Lands, yet Individual have, in some sales, a distinct Interest; This, in the Accounts, is called Free-Gift-Lands: partly what is denominated the Village-Establishment,comprehending the Glebe-Lands settled on the Publick Officers, &c. under two heads of Old and New; the former, I conceive, what have been from Time immemorial; the later of a modern date: partly to Strangers, of two kinds; Inaum where no acknowledgement, or quit-rent, is paid; and Shortrum where the quit-rent or acknowledgment is a small-portion of the real value of the Lands. All these Lands, I conceive, are cultivated by the Community, as well as those called Circar-Grounds, whence the Circar or Government receive a portion of the Produce.
5. The Pagodas and Bramins have a share of the produce of the Lands: If I am not mistaken, The Church has its share in the First instance: this not only inculcates the Reverence and Respect due to Religion, but a better check against embezzlement could not be devised.
6. A certain proportion is allotted to preserve the Tanks and Water Courses, and this is taken out of the Gross Produce of the Lands, before any Partition is made between Government and the Inhabitants; and it appears the Free-Gift-Lands paid a greater share for the repair of Tanks, than the Circar Grounds.
7. Regular accounts of the annual Produce are kept in the Pagodas.
8. Some of the Shares are distributed before the Corn is threshed, some after; so that the different Claimants are naturally Checks to the Publick Accounts; and some have their Shares before, some after, the Circar, or Government, so that the whole is bound in one general chain of mutual connection.
9. The Share to the Circar, or Government is proportionate to the labour of Cultivation compared with the Value of the Produce.
10. When the Paddy Fields are immediately watered from Tanks, without much trouble, the Proportion is greatest to the Circar.
11. When manual Labour is required to raise the Water, the Proportion is less; and still less, when the Water is raised from Wells with much labour.
12. The Proportion, paid to the Circar, of Grain growing on dry-grounds, is less than of Paddy, as the value of the former is smaller in proportion to the labour of Cultivation.
13. It is obvious, the whole system being founded in Equity, that different Soils and Situations will be amenable to different proportions: Had the Accounts been sent home which accompanied Mr. Barnard’s Survey of the Company’s Lands, commonly called the Jaghire,1 This matter would be very obvious; for they contained a minute detail of the number of Houses in every Village, of Buffaloes, Bullocks, Cows, Sheep, and Goats; the quantity of Publick Ground, such as Tanks, Roads, &c. in cawnies, whereof three are nearly equivalent to four English Acres; the quantity of Free Gift Land, belonging to the Village Establishment, and the property of Strangers, with their produce; the quantity of Circar, or Government Lands, distinguishing the Paddy and dry-Ground-Grain,2 with their produce; and likewise the quantity of uncultivated Land; estimate of Repairs of Tanks, distinguishing the expence of the Repairs, and the expected annual advantage from there Repairs; with much other curious instruction; which do the highest honour to Mr. Barnard’s indefatigable assiduity. These accounts being extremely voluminous. I drew up a model for reducing them to Tables, which being approved by the President and Council, at Madrass, Directions were given, in March 1776, to have these Tables finished in the Accomptant’s Office, and several of the Company’s Junior Servants stationed in that Office, to accelerate this business; but these accounts have never come to England: bare Inspection would then have shewn the rights of Individuals and of the State.3
14. After the Public Officers, the Circar, &c. have received their Shares, the Remainder of the Produce of the Land is the property of the Community, but how That is proportioned or disposed of, I confess myself ignorant: however these General Outlines, of The Gentoo Constitution, will be sufficient to explain the nature of that Government, which was founded on principles of the strictest justice; and The leading Principle of their Religion is Charity and Benevolence: The destruction of certain Trees beneficial to Society, I have heard, was amongst the almost inexpiable Crimes; and the building and endowing Choultrys,for the accommodation of Travellers, was the great object of Individual Emulation, by which their names were to be commemorated to Posterity.
15. Although by the Original Gentoo Constitution, the Share of the Circar was paid in kind, and publick Granaries,4 were dispersed over The Country, in every Place of Security; yet a new Mode has been adopted, viz. by letting these Shares to Farmers, who stipulate to pay a certain sum for the Proportions due to Government from the produce of the Lands.
16. This alteration appears to have been the source of much Calamity, and the properest mode, in my opinion, of collecting The Revenue, is, not by Renters of any kind, but by The Company receiving immediately the Circar Share of the Produce of the Lands.
17. The Objections are
1d. It would be an endless trouble.
2d. A large advance is required, to enable the Husbandmen to cultivate the Lands.
3d. A large Sum would be required to repair the Tanks, &c.
18. The first objection may always be made to every proper manner of doing business; the Trouble of receiving the Circar’s Share of the Produce, must however be now taken by the Renter; but He has no Interest in the Welfare of the People, from whom the Collection is made: At the same time the Government must either support him blindfoldly, or take almost as much, if not more, trouble in settling the complicated Accounts and Claims between him and the Inhabitant: The Great Question is “Whether the Happiness of the People, and Prosperity of the Country, are not Objects worthy the utmost attention?” and when once put on a clear footing the Trouble will be comparatively little.
19. Concerning the second Objection—
Upon Enquiry I found, a large Advance was required, only because the distress of the Husbandmen is often so great, as to compel them to sell their Tillage-Cattle; which therefore they are under the necessity of replacing, by borrowing Money, at high Interest, payable out of their share of the following crop; under an easy and equitable Government, they would never be reduced to such distress, but the Stock and Implements would descend from generation to generation: It appears the Country Government, (even the Mahometan) in some Circumstances assisted the Husbandmen with money to carry on their cultivation, without charging them with Interest.
20. Another expence, incident to the Husbandmen, is for Seed; as every Indulgence ought, in my Opinion, to be shewn to them, I think the Seed Corn ought to be taken out of the General Mass, if not out of the Circar’s Share, instead of coming from the Stock of the Inhabitants.
21. 3rd. A large Sum is required to repair Tanks, &c.
22. The first Attention is due to the Tanks: In that Climate, a command of water secures a Crop; and, when Tanks are made to preserve a sufficient store of water, the Produce is almost certain; for one Night’s Monsoon Rain, if none runs to waste, is almost sufficient store of water, the Produce is almost certain; and, with a command of water, they can have three Rice Crops in a year.
23. In 1764, when the Company’s Lands, in the Jaghir, were offered to Farm, Each Bidder was required to signify the measures he proposed to take, for repairing the Tanks, then in much want of Repair: I am informed the several proposals imported, that so large a Sum as 50, or 60,000 Pagodas about (£20,000) was to be laid out in repairing the Tanks. Vencatachilum, the Nabob’s Brahminy, to whom they were let, engaged to repair the Tanks without any deduction of Rent: no Sum is specified.; but I am told it was understood that the Sum, to be disbursed on these Repairs, should be to the same Amount, as the Proposals from the other Persons mentioned; however nothing of this kind has been done to the Tanks, during the whole period the Nabob has had the Jaghire under his management, I was assured the Tanks were in a worse state in 1776 than in 1764, altho’ the annual Taxes, collected in the several districts, for repairing them, amounted to a very considerable Sum; in the Poonamalee District alone, the Tank-Fees, are stated at 2500 Pagodas per annum; which from 1764 to that time, made a Sum of 30,000 Pagodas. The Renters, it is said, have usually appropriated to themselves, the Share of the Produce collected for this Purpose, and the temporary and partial Repairs the Tanks have received, were ineffectual; and generally done at the extraordinary expense of the Inhabitants.
24. This Abuse ought to be effectually remedied, and if a larger proportion of the Produce is requisite for this Purpose, the general benefit would amply compensate for such an additional proportion being allotted, which ought, in great measure if not entirely, to be taken from the Circar Share, as That is encreased by the good State of the Tanks, and the consequent abundant Supply of Water.
25. But if a greater Sum is required, for the present repair of Tanks, than usual Tank-Fees?
26. In a country where Property is so insecure, as in That, from the Incursion of Foreign Enemies, European or Indian, no Improvement, which requires a great advance of money, can be expected to be made by Individuals; because Interest being very high, the expence must consequently be very great to an Individual, and the prospect of recompence, if distant, always precarious: and what returns can be imagined equivalent to the Profit of 12 per Cent per month? which is sometimes received from the Cultivators of the Land: It must therefore be obvious, that the transferring the load of this incumbrance, from the State who ought to repair the Tanks, to the Renter, does not remove the weight of the objection, but increases it.
27. Although the war may be now over, the Peace Establishment must have a Forecast to Future Hostilities: In war, whether in carrying on a Siege, in defending a Place, or even in Field-Duty of Artillery, there are no People more useful than Lascars: and if the number of Sepoy-Battalions on the Coast Establishment be lessened, and some Battalions of Lascars kept in their stead, the actual strength will be greatly encreased, and these Lascars, may, in Peace, be employed on repairing the Tanks; so that they will be profitable; instead of a dead expence to the Company, as other Military in time of Peace: at the same time having such a Body of Lascars ready, on emergency, to be embarked, will be a very great additional strength to our fleet, on the superiority of which the Dominion of India must depend.
The Expence of a Battalion of Lascars of 1050 men including 10 Syrangs and 41 Tyndals amounts to Pagodas 25,920 per annum or £.10,368: a Battalion of Sepoys, compleated to 1050 men, to Pagodas 25,308 or £.10,123: so that the difference in four Battalions would not amount to £.1000 per annum.
28. Martinets are always averse to employ Soldiers in labour; but the Romans, as well as the best Soldiers in Modern Times, have been employed in those duties: Opinions differed concerning my idea of employing the Sepoys in the repairing the Tanks, some Officers approved of it very much; others thought the Sepoys would not be brought to it; if they should have any objections, the example of their officers, and making an Establishment for their Families, dependent on their aid in this work, might remove those objections.
29. The advantage of Europeans, over the Indians, is in nothing greater than in their Artillery; but the advantage of Artillery is lost, if Bullocks are wanting to draw the Guns: The celerity of movement is essential, and there sesems to have been a capital mistake, in the present war of the Carnatick, in having too large Guns for the Field Artillery.
30. The printed Book, of the Company’s Military Establishment, allots for every hundred Europeans, two Brass 12lers, eight 6lers, and two Howitzers; the number of Draught-Bullocks, requisite for these pieces of Ordnance, and their appurtenances, are 338. A Brass 12ler requiring twelve Bullocks, and twelve Lascars, a 6ler eight Bullocks, and eight 6lers, and a Howitzer six Bullocks and six Lascars: The Carriage-Bullocks, allowed for carrying the Tents, &c. are thirty for every hundred Europeans.
31. If proper attention is had, in Peace, to provide a number of good Bullocks, they may be disposed in the different Villages of the Jaghire, the property remaining to the Company; and the Inhabitants being allowed the use of them: These Bullocks must be purchased from other Countries, those of the Carnatick being of a very inferior kind; Tripetty used to be a great Fair for Cattle, and to the best of my recollection, the price of a good Bullock there, was 8 or 10 Pagodas. Perhaps the Bullocks, intended for Field Artillery, ought not to be used at Plow, as that may retard the celerity of their motion: They who have seen the Expedition of the Heckary Bullocks in India, or of the Wagon-Bullocks at the Cape of Good Hope, must be satisfied, that these Animals have sufficient Speed for any Purposes in the Field.
32. One very great Inconvenience, attending the Indian Wars, is the number of Camp-Followers; the Baggage being chiefly carried on the Heads of Cooleys, must of course make the numbers very great; but if light Field-Wagons were introduced, this evil would be very much lessened; and these Wagons being employed, in time of Peace, to transport the Produce of the Country to Madrass, the Bullocks, intended for the Field-Artillery, might serve to draw these Wagons, without inconvenience; and the Bullocks, intended to draw these Wagons with the Baggage of a Camp, might be employed on Husbandry.
33. There is no mode of manuring the Lands in India more beneficial than Sheep; and, on this account, the Inhabitants are always unwilling to part with their Sheep; which were often taken from them by constraint to supply the Troops: To obviate this Inconvenience, I proposed, that a number of Sheep should be bought, by the Company, in Countries where they are bred, to stock the Jaghire Lands; and that the Inhabitants should have had the advantage of their produce and manure: accounting to the Company for the Original Stock, which would be called for to supply the necessary wants of the Garrison and Troops; by this means a regular supply would be had, without distressing the Country: I think where the Sheep are bred, the price is from 7 to 9 for a Pagoda; the Garrison are supplied at 5 for a Pagoda.
34. A Bound-Hedge, round the Jaghire, would be a very desirable thing; this ought to be composed of Bamboe, Coconut Beetle-nut and Palmeira Trees, mixed with the Caldera and Alloes; It must be done by sowing the seed and planting the Nuts, &c. The Company’s Packets, instead of idling their time in Madrass Road, may occasionally make a trip to the Nicobars, for coconuts; The Cargo for purchasing them being chiefly Tobacco, is very small expence: The Profit of such a Bound-Hedge, when come to maturity, would be considerable, but the security to the Inhabitants against Incursions of Horse would be inestimable.
35. The destruction of the Pollums was very bad policy, for altho’ they were sometimes receptacles of stolen cattle, &c. they afforded a secure retreat against a sudden incursion of Enemy, and were of more use in times of Hostility, than disadvantage to the Publick in Peace: There Pollums were small districts enclosed in thick Coppice and Bamboe, with a narrow winding Path into them, with Barriers to make the access as difficult as possible. It appears the only Supplies of Provisions Sir Eyre Coote got, were from Such of the Pollums as have not been destroyed.
36. It is reported all the Trees are destroyed in the Jaghire, and that this was done by the Followers of our own Camp, more than by the Enemy: If this be true, it is a more severe Calamity than any other which could have happened, for the Weavers perform all their work in the shade of Groves, which we call Topes; and this is a Calamity that long time only can repair, though the sooner it is begun the better.
37. Nothing could be more prejudicial than letting the Jaghire to rent to the Nabob; Lord Pigot when he got the grant for the Company in 1763, from a delicacy that it might not be insinuated he had private views in acquiring these Lands, left it to his Successor to let them; and after a few months, they were actually farmed to the Nabob, though nominally to Vencatachilum, his Braminy, who gave his Master as his Security; and they have continued under the Nabob’s mismanagement ever since.
In case the Mode in present practice, of Renters, should be adopted, some things ought to be well considered, but as the original Gentoo mode, of receiving the Government share in kind, appears to me the simplest and best, I shall not say anything more.
--------------------
1. Jagsire implying Subjection and Service due, whereas this Grant is properly Inaum, i.e. free from all acknowledgement or Service, Some Persons object to the rule of the term Jaghire; but it may be used as a Geographical Name, and in this Sense ONLY I use it. Vide Map for an unparalleled example of Gentoo Industry in making tanks.
2. Called Comboo, this being the most common Grain on such grounds.
3. I have one sheet of such a Table, which I suppose was the Model, and I recollect to have been, since I came home, the Form of another Table, distinguishing all the Officers, &c. in the different Villages: but this I have mislaid.
4. The Publick Granary at Tanjour is a stupendous Building.
Congratulations for your singular effort. So much to know, understand and lean. Thanks once again.
ReplyDelete